Napoleon's First Defeat: The Battle of Caldiero, 12 November 1796

The Battle of Caldeiro was a hard-fought encounter between Napoleon and Alvinczy a few days prior to Arcola. This was a battle affected by snow, sleet, and mud, and one in which the Austrian advanced guard fought stubbornly against Napoleon’s attempt to crush them before reinforcements arrived.

When considering scenarios, it is important to give some thought to the time limits of the typical gaming evening, and the modest size of forces available to most wargamers. I also like to present games that give both players a fair chance of winning… so when asked to look at potential scenarios involving Napoleon during the Italian Campaign of 1796-1797, one lesser-known battle seemed to meet all the above criteria. Of added interest is that the historic result demonstrated that Napoleon was up against a very able opponent and suffered a rare setback.

Napoleon was in a very difficult position. Whilst trying to blockade an Austrian Army in Mantua, he found himself faced with the approach of two large columns from the north: one under Davidovich (18,000 men), and another under Alvinczy (28,000 men). Their plan was to unite in the vicinity of Verona (held by Napoleon), and then march to relieve Mantua. Napoleon detached Vaubois to hold Davidovich, whilst he concentrated troops in Verona under Massena, Augereau, and Dumas to work out how to deal with Alvinczy - clearly the most imminent threat.

Alvinczy halted a few miles east of Verona and sent forward a strong advanced guard under Prince Hohenzollern. After some initial skirmishing, these were deployed in the naturally strong position stretching from Caldiero to Colognola. The 8,000 men of the Austrian Advanced Guard were roughly deployed as shown on the map at right.

THE AUSTRIAN ADVANCED GUARD

Stra was defended by the 7th Banalisten Battalion, with horse artillery support. Two 12pdrs and a Hungarian battalion, as well as a Croat Grenzer battalion were to their east. Six squadrons of the Erdody Hussars, split into two units, were placed behind the hills with orders to support Stra. Caldiero was defended by a battalion of the Callenberg regiment. Gyulai’s battalion occupied the San Mattia and La Rocca Heights. Four 6pdrs were in support. 

Colognola was defended by a Croat Grenzer battalion, while two 12pdrs and a further Grenzer battalion (probably supported by the Jager companies) covered the area between Colognola and Mount Zovo. Between this latter village and Lorgnan were the Colloredo battalion, two squadrons of the Wurmser Hussars, and a squadron of the Erzherzog Joseph Hussars.

Alvinczy was deployed off the map to the east with the remainder of his forces: General Brabeck’s Brigade of four battalions; Major-General Schuberz’s Brigade (five battalions); and troops under the Marquis de Provera (four battalions, one Hussar squadron). Napoleon made a very careful reconnaissance of the enemy positions and decided to use Augereau’s smaller division to pin the enemy around Caldiero-Stra, while Massena would manoeuvre to his left to assault and outflank Colognola. The aim was to roll up the enemy army from the north, a manoeuvre that Napoleon adopted time and again.

Details of the forces engaged in this battle vary considerably. In total, Napoleon used around 7,000 men from Massena’s Division, 4,700 from Augereau’s Division, and 1,600 men from the cavalry reserve under Dumas. Speed was of the essence, as Napoleon hoped to defeat the Austrian Advanced Guard before they could be effectively reinforced. At daybreak on 12 November, Napoleon’s army was deployed as shown on the map, with the cavalry reserve arriving as soon as Augereau and Massena’s Divisions moved forward.

You will see from the order of battle that Massena had around seventeen weak battalions in six Demi-Brigades, supported by a few hundred cavalry, whilst Augereau had twelve weak battalions in five Demi-Brigades. Most of these Demi-Brigades were barely above the strength of many of the Austrian battalions. Although both infantry divisions had some artillery support, the weather significantly limited their involvement. The cavalry regiments under Dumas were, like the infantry units, significantly under-strength.

WARGAMING THE BATTLE

I tend to play games using the well-known General de Brigade rules, to allow for the subtlety of small-scale combat that suits this battle very well. Any rules that operate at the company and battalion level, within a brigade command structure, should be fine. These scenarios are designed for a 1:20 ratio of figures to actual men, with ‘stands’ of six infantry, four cavalry, and one model gun (representing two actual guns). Approximate historic strengths involved in each engagement have also been shown to enable you to adapt to your own rules or scales. 

Merging units

It was not uncommon for under-strength units to be merged in battle, so I would suggest that the option to merge many of the French battalions is available to the French commander. About nine battalions for Massena and six for Augereau would be acceptable: raising the average strength of each merged battalion to around 720 men (36 figures at 1:20 scale). Both sides can also choose to merge small cavalry units of similar type. This suggestion makes it a much more manageable and playable game.

Command structure

Massena can be supported by three infantry and one cavalry subordinate commander, Augereau by two, and Dumas by three. Hohenzollern can be supported by three infantry commanders and two cavalry commanders. Brabeck, Schuberz, and Provera can each have one subordinate commander. Unit qualityBoth sides can nominate one battalion as elite; five of the Austrian reinforcement battalions are conscript. Otherwise, all units and generals should be regarded as veterans for combat purposes. 

Austrian artillery

The Austrian 3pdr guns should be spread throughout the Advanced Guard infantry: two per battalion. The Austrians had dug-in over the night of 11 to 12 November, so the artillery on the heights should be in earthworks, offering some additional protection. 

Terrain effects

Both Caldiero and Colognola should be considered prepared and loopholed, each able to hold a battalion. Gombion, Stra, and Lorgnan wear tiny hamlets and offer limited cover (allow 2 companies for each). All buildings are stone-built. Vineyards will prevent cavalry from being able to charge and will unform them for movement purposes; otherwise, they have no effect on troops. All hills are steep and offer defensive bonuses relevant to your rules. Woods or towns on lower levels do not block the line of sight for troops deployed on a higher level. The scattered woodlands prevent artillery and cavalry from passing through them; unform all formed infantry and reduce their movement by 50%. This has no effect on skirmishers.

Austrian formation restriction

As this is 1796, the Austrians should not, as a rule, use attack columns (if your rules allow their use when assaulting settlements then go with your rules).

Weather impact

Snow, sleet, and mud all played a part in influencing the outcome of the battle. For ease of play, roll 1 x D6 each turn. On a roll of 5-6, a sudden snow/sleet squall causes artillery movement to stop that turn; infantry on high ground, and all cavalry movement, to reduce by half; prevents cavalry from charging; and prevents infantry from firing (except from buildings or woods). Infantry can still attempt to assault by bayonet.

Number of turns

The French must have been on the move before dawn (approximately 7:00am) and sunset was around 7:00pm. If each turn represents 1 hour, this means a game length should be around 12 turns before nightfall prevents further action. On Turn 1 the French player moves first, after that roll 2 x D6 to see who has the initiative, with a +2 bonus for the French (for Napoleon’s presence): the player with a higher result has the choice to take the initiative or pass it to the opponent.

Austrian reinforcements

The weather meant the Austrian reinforcements only contributed men between 3:00pm and 4:00pm. This would mean they might begin arriving on the eastern map edge between points A and B from turn 6 (12:00 noon) as follows:

* Roll required on a D6 to arrive that turn

VICTORY CONDITIONS

The French need to inflict significant damage on the Austrians to claim victory, so at least half of the Advanced Guard should be retreating or routing, and overall casualties should be at least 50% worse than the French by the end of the play.

OPPOSING ARMIES

There are significant discrepancies in accounts of the battle, probably because it was one Napoleon may have wished to forget! I have tried to balance out the anomalies and give sufficient detail to enable you to adapt the troop numbers to your rules.

French forces

Commander in Chief: General Napoleon Bonaparte

Note: Demi-Brigades are each of 3 battalions unless otherwise stated.

Division Massena

Divisional Infantry, 17 battalions (6,400 men): 18th Light Demi-Brigade; 18th Line Demi-Brigade; 32nd Line Demi-Brigade; 75th Line Demi-Brigade; 14th Line Demi-Brigade; 11th Light Demi-Brigade (2 battalions). Foot Artillery (8 guns). Divisional Cavalry (600 men): Light cavalry: 7th Hussars, 22nd Chasseurs. Medium Cavalry: 5th Dragoons, 15th Dragoons. Horse Artillery (4 guns).

Division Augereau

Divisional Infantry, 12 battalions (4,700 men): 5th Light Demi-Brigade (2 battalions); 12th Light D-B (1 battalion); 51st Line Demi-Brigade; 4th Line Demi-Brigade; 40th Line Demi-Brigade. Foot Artillery (8 guns)

Cavalry reserve of divisional General Dumas (1,600 men): Light: 1st Hussars, 22nd Chasseurs, 24th Chasseurs, 25th Chasseurs. Medium: 8th Dragoons, 18th Dragoons, 20th Dragoons. Heavy: 1st Cavalry, 5th Cavalry. Horse Artillery (4 guns).

Austrian forces

Commander in Chief: Field Marshal Baron Alvinczy

Advanced guard: Prince Hohenzollern

Advanced Guard Infantry, (6,400 men): Gyulai Regiment (1 battalion); Croat Banalisten Regiment (2 battalions); Combined Hungarian Battalion (1 battalion); Callenberg regiment (1 battalion); 2nd Banal Grenz Infantry Regiment (1 battalion); Colloredo Infantry Regiment (1 battalion); 7th Karlstadter Banalisten (1 battalion); Jagers (2 companies).

Advanced Guard Foot Artillery: 4 x 12 pounders, 4 x 6 pounders, 16 x 3 pounders

Advanced Guard Cavalry (1,600 men): Erdody Hussars 6 squadrons; Wurmser Hussars 2 squadrons; Erzherzog Joseph Hussars 1 squadron. Horse Artillery: 2 x 6 pounders

Reinforcements

Commander in Chief Alvinczy, with Brigade Brabeck 4 Battalions (4,000 men).

Brigade Schuberz: 5 Battalions (5,000 men).

Column Provera: Spleny infantry regiment (2 battalions); 2 light companies; 1 squadron hussars (3,500 men).

HISTORIC OUTCOME 

The French advanced in accordance with Napoleon’s orders, with Massena taking flanking fire as he manoeuvred to assault Colognola. After hard fighting, interrupted by periodic snow storms and torrents of rain and sleet, the French became masters of Colognola, but had significant problems manoeuvring their artillery. Augereau meanwhile made repeated assaults on Stra, but failed to capture it. While successfully pinning enemy units, which in time extended his line to the Adige River (just off the south edge of the map), Erdody Hussars attempted to hold him back. 

Moving up onto the heights, the weather was slowing Massena’s progress and demoralising his men, just as Alvinczy’s reinforcements began to arrive. Between 5:00pm and 6:00pm, they clashed with Massena’s troops, throwing them back on Colognola, before French units subsequently began to rout. Aware of Massena’s setback, Augereau was forced to provide a covering screen as the French withdrew to Verona, having suffered around 1,800 losses to Austria's 1,200. A strong Austrian resistance combined with poor weather contributed to the French defeat. Bonaparte devised a new strategy and met the Austrians again at the Battle of Arcole a few days later. WS&S

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